The Development of Islāmic Culture and Civilization in Kashmīr and the Contribution of Muslim Ṣūfīs during the Medieval Times

Kashmīr has a long unique structure and identity due to its geographical beauty, natural resources, and traditional spiritual ethos since antiquity. In ancient times, although most Kashmīris were followers of Buddhism and Hinduism, in addition to these traditional religions, there was also an influential group ascetic mystics called Rishis in Kashmīr. They devoted their entire lives to abstinence (Nafs Kashi) and various spiritual struggles in order to control their desires of carnal self (Mujāhida’s). From the beginning of medieval times which is known as the golden age of Islāmic civilization and culture, the message of Islām spread rapidly throughout the world. In this regard, the group of Ṣūfīs played vital role in the whole Islāmic world. In Kashmīr, as in the rest of the subcontinent, Ṣūfīs made significant contributions to the propagation of Islām. The present article will examine the historical events of the medieval times, which are considered a milestone in the spread of Islām and the promotion of Islāmic civilization in Kashmīr. Moreover, the works of those Ṣūfī masters will be reviewed who have sacrificed a lot and done commendable works on the history of Kashmīr.


Introduction
The Kashmīr 1 valley known worldwide for its natural scenery and beauty, is also famous for its cultural and spiritual traditions from ancient times. Since medieval age the region has been the abode of religious scholars, Ṣūfīs, religious preachers, due to which it is known as "pirwari." 2 In the Medieval times, a large group of Ṣūfīs from Irān and Turkestān spread Islām in the Kashmīr Valley. They dedicated their lives here by presenting theoretical and practical examples of Islāmic teachings, and the people of Kashmīr got impressed to see the same. The history of Kashmīr bears witnesses to the fact that the Ṣūfīs were the most prominent contributors to the promotion of Islāmic culture in Kashmīr, and it was through them that Islāmic civilization and culture flourished in Kashmīr. It is a historical fact that the rays of Islāmic light in Kashmīr are spread through Ṣūfīs. However, Islāmic influences began to flourish in Kashmīr valley as early as 711-13 AD, but Islām began to prosper in the early fourteenth century AD in this region with its beauty and elegance. Thus, the first Muslim government was started in Kashmīr valley, and due to the civilization and culture of the Muslims, the people of this region became very bright and exemplary.

The First Impressions of Islām in Kashmīr
In ancient times, Kashmīr, like the rest of the subcontinent, had an abundant number of followers of both Hinduism and Buddhism. Hinduism was at its peak in Kashmīr when the propagation of Islam in seventh century CE began to spread outside the Arab world. The political, social, and religious control of Kashmīr was also in the hands of the proponents of Hinduism. Hindus have owned the region for almost four thousand years, and almost twenty-one families of other Hindus have ruled the state in particular, and it is only because of this supremacy and dominance of these Hindu kings in the state their people, i.e., Kashmīri Brahmins and other nations continued to live a comfortable and prosperous life in those days. Therefore, with time, the policy of the Hindus did not succeed for a long time. With the changing times, the conditions of the country also began to change. The growing power and rise of Muslim countries forced the Hindus to establish relations with the Muslim majority countries and then reconsidered the strategy adopted by the Hindus in this regard and lifted all restrictions on the entry of Muslims into their country. 3 For Kashmīri historians, the question of propagation of Islām and its consolidation in Kashmīr has been a matter of debate since times immemorial. However, most historians agree that the first wave of Islām in Kashmīr started from the Hindu era. 4 When Islām spread with full force in the Kashmīr region, the mighty armies of Islāmic thought, literature, science, culture, and civilization also rose from the different parts of the subcontinent and began to enter the Kashmīr valley. From the very beginning of Medieval times, the golden age of Islāmic civilization and culture began. In the same period, the message of Islām spread all over the world at a rapid pace, and in this regard, the contribution of the Ṣūfīs is considered phenomenal throughout the Muslim world during the medieval times. Thus, from the eleventh century AD onwards, when the separate Ṣūfī orders (silsilahs) began to establish in taṣawwuf (Sufism), the idea of mystic hospices (khānqās) came into view as a result abundant number of these hospices (khānqās) began to be built for the stay and training of Ṣūfīs. These monasteries (khānqās), besides providing practical spiritual training to the Ṣūfīs, also trained them to serve common people and impart spiritual light in them. As the number of seekers of truth increased with time, the Ṣūfīs left their areas and migrated to different areas for the service of people, travelled only for the knowledge of the truth and especially for the propagation of Islām. They aroused the spirit of purification among people. As a result, innumerable people in every region, influenced by the character of these Ṣūfīs, converted to Islām without any compulsion or violence. This way, Islām continuously spread throughout the world through the immense sacrifices of these Ṣūfīs, these services of them are not only acknowledged but also historically overviewed by the famous orientalist T.W. Arnold in his book "The Preaching of Islām." 11 The spread of Islām in Kashmīr was nurtured by these Ṣūfīs. Thus, the imprint of Islām in Kashmīr can be traced back to the Ninth century CE, but the process of spreading Islām at the grassroots level in Kashmīr began with the arrival of Central Asian Ṣūfīs in Kashmīr. 12 This process started from Ḥadraṭ Syed Sharaf-ud-Din Shurawardi ( ‫عليه‬ ‫هللا‬ ‫)رحمة‬ 13 aka Bulbul Shāh ‫عليه(‬ ‫هللا‬ ‫)رحمة‬ 14 and continued for centuries, with time not only became more effective, but this process of propagation of Islām became a permanent part of Kashmīrs' individual and collective identity. Therefore, as mentioned earlier, there was a group of abstinent and God-seeking people in Kashmīr from antiquity who were looked upon with great reverence by people of Kashmīr, so it would not be wrong to say that the people of Kashmīr were already inclined towards spirituality due to which they got easily impressed by the teachings Ṣūfīs who came from Persia and Central Asia. The fourteenth century AD is a significant century for the spread of Islām in Kashmīr in general and the foundation of Islāmic civilization in Kashmīr in particular.
On the one hand, for the first time in this century, the Muslims established an independent empire in Kashmīr, which proved to be a golden chapter in the history of Kashmīr. In addition, the spread of Islām in this century also began to spread very fast. Sultan Ṣadar-ud-Dīn, the first Muslim ruler in Kashmīr, whose real name was Rinchan Shāh, converted to Islām due to persuasion and efforts of Syed Bulbul Shāh's ( ‫رحمة‬ ‫هللا‬ ‫عليه‬ ). Historians write that Rinchan Shāh was initially a follower of Buddhism but was interested in studying other religions, especially the Hindu religion and Islām. He consulted the relevant religious scholars of both religions in order to study about their philosophies. He once invited both of the Hindu and Muslim scholars from Kashmīr in his court to deliberate upon the teachings of their respective religions. Among those who had accepted his invitation was Ḥaḍrat Bulbul Shāh ( ‫رحمة‬ ‫هللا‬ ‫عليه‬ ), whose unique style of speech, religious arguments impressed him to such an extent that he in no time took an oath of allegiance in the hands of Bulbul Shāh ( ‫رحمة‬ ‫هللا‬ ‫عليه‬ ) and converted to Islām. 15 After conversion of Sultān Sadur-ud-Dīn to Islām, the spread of Islām in Kashmīr was pretty smooth. However, very few mosques and hermitages were still built in Kashmīrī's political and cultural life. No extraordinary revolution took place except the establishment of Islām, nor was any immediate step taken at the government level connected with the spread of Islām, not either was it patronized. The society of Kashmīr was still dominated by Hindu civilization and culture, which was adopted not only by the people but also by those in power. However, the ideas of purity, simplicity, and equality of Islāmic teachings began to impress common masses, especially the lower-class Hindus.
The transformational progress in the propagation of Islām in Kashmīr took place during the reign of Sultān Qutubu'd-Dīn Shāh Mīrī 16 when an organized caravan of Ṣūfīs from central Asia arrived in Kashmīr. The aim of this caravan was neither the acquisition of wealth nor political victories, but this caravan of lovers, full of divine love and the spirit of societal service, came only to enlighten the people of this land of Kashmīr with the light of Islām. The leader of this caravan was a great Ṣūfī thinker, whose name was the Ḥaḍrat Mir Sayyid ʿAlī Hamadānī 12 Saifud Dīn Bayhaqi, Syed, Noori Irfān, Kirmānī Publications Rafiabaad, Kashmīr, 2011, p. 5. 13 Various theories have been proposed regarding Ḥadraṭ Syed Sharaf-ud-Din Suhurawardi's birth. Some schools of thought claim he was a saintly celebrity from Bukhara, while others believe he was from Samarqand. Others are of the view that he was from Turkestān or Central Asia. However, the majority of people believe he came from Turkestān, hence the name of the great friend of Allāh ( ُ ‫َه‬ ‫َان‬ ‫ْح‬ ‫ُب‬ ‫س‬ ‫ى‬ َ ‫ال‬ َ ‫َع‬ ‫ت‬ َ ‫و‬ ) has the tag 'Turkestanī' attached to it. 14 Kashmīrī writers have given Ḥaḍrat Bulbul Shāh ‫عليه(‬ ‫هللا‬ ‫)رحمة‬ a number of names and titles. The historian, Jonaraj, is hesitant to mention the saint's name. According to the author of the "Baharistan-i-Shahi", when the king or others inquired about his identity, the holy saint introduced himself as "Bulbul Qalandar" and declared himself a Muslim. In his "Tarikh-i-Kashmīr", Muḥammad Azam refers to him as Baba Bulbul Shah ( ‫رحمة‬ ‫هللا‬ ‫عليه‬ ). In his "Nawadir-ul-Akhbar," another scholar, Rafi-ud-Dīn, refers to him as Sayed Sharaf-ud-Din ( ‫رحمة‬ ‫هللا‬ ‫عليه‬ ). In his "Asrar-ul-Akbar," Baba Dawūd Mishkātī refers to him as Ḥaḍrat Bābā Bilāl. In his book "Tarikh-i-Kashmīr," Peer Ghulām Ḥassan Khuihamī states that his real name was Ḥaḍrat Sayed Sharaf-ud-Dīn (  ‫رحمة‬  ‫هللا‬  ‫عليه‬ ). Some other scholars like G.M.D Ṣūfī calls him as Sharf-ud-Dīn Abdur Rahman Turkestānī (  ‫رحمة‬  ‫هللا‬  ‫عليه‬ ). 15 Musoodī, Muḥammad, Rinchan say Ranjeet Tak, Book Media, Srinagar, n.d., p. 12. 16 The ruler of Kashmīr whose reign (r. 1373-89 CE) is remembered only for the arrival in Kashmīr of a Muslim traveller named Syed ʿAlī Hamdani. Qutub'din died in 1380 CE, and his son Sultan Sikander, also known as Sikander Butshikand, took over as his successor. ‫عليه(‬ ‫هللا‬ ‫)رحمة‬ (c. 1314 CE/713 AH-1384 CE/785 AH), 17 who was well versed in religious (Sharī'ah) sciences and was considered one of the leading Sufi mentor in the Kubrawiya order of taṣawwuf (Sufism). 18 Although the arrival of Ṣūfīs in Kashmīr 19 continued after Ḥaḍrat Bulbul Shāh ‫عليه(‬ ‫هللا‬ ‫)رحمة‬ but still the majority of people in Kashmīr remained non-Muslims as no effective effort was made in this regard. With the arrival of Ḥaḍrat Mir Sayyid ʿAlī Hamadānī ( ‫عليه‬ ‫هللا‬ ‫)رحمة‬ this vacuum of lack of da'wah 20 in an organized way was filled. Ḥaḍrat Mir Sayyid ʿAlī Hamadānī ( ‫عليه‬ ‫هللا‬ ‫)رحمة‬ brought with him a large group of followers (Sadat) and Ṣūfīs 21 and tried to spread Islām across the length and breadth of Kashmīr. It is pertinent to mention here that the comrades that came along with Ḥaḍrat Mir Sayyid ʿAlī Hamadānī ‫عليه(‬ ‫هللا‬ ‫)رحمة‬ included Islāmic scholars and experts of diverse arts and crafts. 22 Ḥaḍrat Mir Sayyid ʿAlī Hamadānī (  ‫رحمة‬  ‫هللا‬  ‫عليه‬ ) not only brought religion of Islām with him, but he also brought with him the tools of complete culture and civilization. This endeavor of Ḥaḍrat Mir Sayyid ʿAlī Hamadānī ( ‫رحمة‬ ‫هللا‬ ‫عليه‬ ) increased the social and intrinsic beauty of Kashmīr along with its extrinsic beauty, resulting in social peace and harmony. The atmosphere of peace, both moral and spiritual, began to uplift with his enormous efforts. After Ḥaḍrat Mir Sayyid ʿAlī Hamadānī ( ‫رحمة‬ ‫هللا‬ ‫عليه‬ ), the person who rendered historical services in the field of da'wah in Kashmīr is the patron saint of Kashmīr Valley, Sheikh Noor-ud-Dīn Noorānī ‫عليه(‬ ‫هللا‬ ‫.)رحمة‬ 23 He prepared a large group of his followers and carried out the work of spreading Islām with great sincerity and devotion. 24

The Rise of Islamic Civilization in Medieval Kashmīr and the Services/Contributions of Ṣūfīs
Culture is such a broad term in which all aspects of society or ways of life come; that is, it is the name of all the thoughts and deeds of a nation's intellectual, emotional and spiritual life. When a nation sets its own style of development, it becomes its own culture. Therefore, culture is the name of the whole collection, including religion, beliefs, sciences and arts, ethics, habits, customs, and all the tendencies and affairs that man performs after acquisition. It is as if the concept of the term culture includes mental development, morals and etiquette, civilization, and national characteristics. 25 As already mentioned, the fourteenth century AD is a milestone in the history of Kashmīr. Apart from an organized movement for the promotion of Islām, the promotion of Islāmic civilization also started in a very organized manner in the same century. It is pertinent to mention here that the same era has witnessed the immense religious services, sacrifices, and contributions from revered With the spread of Islām, the Islāmic atmosphere in Kashmīr embellished its culture. As soon as Ṣūfīs entered here, they urged the Muslims to pursue education, which was earlier mostly confined to the Brahmins. Thus, the Hindu language of Sanskrit began to decline, and Persian and Arabic began to rise. At the same time, religious tolerance became an integral part of Kashmīr civilization and the most prominent feature of Kashmīri history. People of different religions came together in Firdaus-e-barii 28 to live in unity and breathe in the atmosphere of unity and solidarity. It seems that after the spread of Islām in the medieval times, religious tolerance, literature, economy, clothing, architecture, food and drink habits, fine arts, architecture, etc., are typical examples of tolerance and interconnectedness in every field and level.
Although Ṣūfīs services to the spread of Islām and the evolution of Islāmic civilization in Kashmīr are unparalleled, historians have always praised the services of Muslim Sultans (Kings), as the Sultans of Kashmīr have always been fond of the Ṣūfīs, Dr. Aijaz Farooq said in an article reviewing the services of both Ṣūfīs and Sultans, he writes it is challenging to determine whose efforts in both classes are more effective in this regard. At the same time, the efforts and role of Ṣūfīs, Shaykhs, and Ulama [religious scholars] are not only more significant but also crucial, at the same time the efforts and intense struggle of the Sultans of Islām and the patronage of the efforts of preaching Islam and their cooperation is also no less important. It would be fair to say that the two classes, with the cooperation and guidance of each other, did a great job of introducing Islām in Kashmīr and revolutionizing the political, social, cultural, and religious life of the people of Kashmīr that by the end of the fifteenth century CE, ninety-five percent of the people of Kashmīr had converted to Islām and enlightened their lives with the light of Islām. 29  30 The word "Rishi" is specifically derived from Sanskrit and Indian traditions, although some medieval scholars of Islām have stated that it is derived from the Persian word "Raish" or" Rish," which refers to a bird's feathers or wings. One such example is a Baba Dawūd Mishkātī, who gives a complicated and twisted explanation. A bird without feathers has little command over its own movements and is completely reliant on the wind. And similar is the circumstance with a Rishi; he is cut off from the rest of the world and lives alone, beaten by fate. This and similar interpretations, on the other hand, have failed to convince the average Kashmīri Muslim, who, for the most part, supports the Sanskrit derivation and uses it interchangeably with his Hindu counterparts as a synonym for a sage. Actually, many Kashmīris do not connect the word with any particular order of Ṣūfīs, instead using it to refer to any Ṣūfī saint. 31 Sannyasis are the Brahmins who have 'renunciated' all materials aspects of life only to gain truth.